How Childhood Shapes Young Adult Depression

In the United States, depression is the most common mental disorder. Depression is also a significant challenge for many young adults. It imposes high personal and societal burdens, costing the U.S. an estimated $210.5 billion in 2010 alone—not to mention its profound emotional and social tolls. However, the reasons people become depressed are still not well understood.

Our recent study in the Journal of Affective Disorders sheds light on how early-life experiences shape mental health in U.S. young adults aged 18 to 28. Using data from the nationally representative U.S. Panel Study of Income Dynamics – Transition into Adulthood Supplement, we estimate a pre-pandemic 12-month prevalence of major depressive episodes at 25.4% of young adults. Our findings show that childhood adversities and exposure to depression—either one’s own or parental depression—contribute significantly to young adult depression. Our analysis also identifies striking differences between males and females in childhood-related risk factors.

Approximately 60% of depression among young adults can be traced to childhood experiences, highlighting how deeply early life affects mental health. Experiences such as abuse, neglect, or growing up in challenging environments create lasting vulnerabilities that may increase the risk of depression years later. Physical abuse during childhood stood out as a significant risk factor, especially for female respondents. Experiencing or witnessing violence disrupts a child’s sense of safety and stability. For female respondents, having an anxiety disorder during childhood or adolescence is another major risk factor for developing depression later in life.

By recognizing different risk factors of depression, including differences by gender, prevention is more likely to be effective.

For male respondents, the story is somewhat different. Childhood disorders characterized by problematic outward behaviors, like aggression or impulsive behaviors, emerged as significant predictors of depression. These behaviors often indicate underlying struggles in managing stress, which, if unresolved, may increase the risk of depression later in life. Also, chronic physical symptoms, such as frequent headaches, were notable risk factors for men, suggesting that mental and physical health are closely intertwined.

These gender differences in how depression develops are important. Before experiencing depression, women were more likely to suffer from inward-focused issues like anxiety, whereas men were more prone to show outward behaviors like aggression or impulsivity and to report physical symptoms like pain conditions or headaches. These differences underline the importance of gender-specific approaches to prevention and treatment. By recognizing different risk factors of depression, including differences by gender, prevention is more likely to be effective.

Our study offers important insights for improving the health and well-being of young adults. First, by understanding how early-life factors contribute to depression, steps can be taken to reduce its prevalence. Preventing childhood abuse, for example, would protect children from immediate harm and also reduce the likelihood of depression in their later years.

Our study serves as a call to action for families, schools, and governments to prioritize children’s mental health and create environments that foster resilience and well-being.

Similarly, addressing behavioral and emotional challenges during childhood (for instance, through school-based programs) may yield long-term benefits. Our study also emphasizes the importance of early detection. Against the background of the existing large unmet need for behavioral health programs tailored to youth, identifying and addressing these issues before they escalate could help prevent future depression.

Second, creating safe, nurturing environments for children is critical. Families can play a crucial role by providing emotional support and stability, while schools can help by identifying at-risk children and offering counseling or support programs. At the policy level, investing in mental health services for children and detecting, intervening in, and preventing child abuse are essential steps.

Our study also suggests tailoring interventions to the specific needs of children, taking into account gender and other relevant characteristics, and cautions against one-size-fits-all, universal prevention or treatment approaches. For example, programs addressing gender-specific challenges, such as managing anxiety in young girls or behavioral issues in boys, could make a meaningful difference.

Our study serves as a call to action for families, schools, and governments to prioritize children’s mental health and create environments that foster resilience and well-being. It illuminates the roots of young adult depression in childhood and its multigenerational dynamics. Considerable public health responses are needed to address the high prevalence of depression among young adults and to enhance the effectiveness of programs to reduce depression by understanding these early-life risk factors and gender differences.